395 CE
A year that permanently reshaped the political map of Europe and the Mediterranean as the Roman Empire was divided for the last time following the death of Theodosius I, with his sons ruling the eastern and western halves independently.
Geopolitics & Governance
- Emperor Theodosius I died on January 17 in Milan, and the Roman Empire was permanently divided between his two sons: Arcadius, aged seventeen, received the eastern empire with its capital at Constantinople, and Honorius, aged ten, received the western empire with its capital initially at Milan.
- The division of 395 proved to be the final and permanent partition of the Roman Empire, as the two halves would never again be reunited under a single ruler.
- Real power in the west was held by the magister militum Stilicho, a general of Vandal origin who served as regent for the young Honorius and became the dominant figure in western imperial politics.
- Rufinus served as chief minister in the eastern court at Constantinople, and the rivalry between Stilicho and Rufinus would dominate Roman politics in the following years.
Conflict & Security
- Alaric and the Visigoths, who had served as federates in Theodosius's army, revolted following the emperor's death and began raiding across the Balkans, seeking better terms of settlement and recognition from the empire.
- The Huns continued to press westward across the Eurasian steppe, displacing other peoples and creating a chain of migrations that increased pressure on Rome's northern and eastern frontiers.
Culture & Society
- The world population was approximately 215 million.
Climate & Environment
- Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration was approximately 278 parts per million, as later confirmed by ice core analysis.