Directory

1938 CE

A year dominated by the Munich Agreement, the Anschluss uniting Germany and Austria, the horror of Kristallnacht, and the discovery of nuclear fission, as Europe hurtled toward the brink of war.

Geopolitics & Diplomacy

  • Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss on March 12, with German troops entering the country unopposed and incorporating it into the Third Reich.
  • The Munich Agreement was signed on September 30 by Germany, Britain, France, and Italy, ceding the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany in an attempt to preserve peace.
  • British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain returned from Munich declaring he had achieved peace for our time, a statement that became infamous as appeasement failed.
  • Germany occupied the Sudetenland in October, stripping Czechoslovakia of its border defenses and a significant portion of its population and industry.
  • Hungary and Poland seized portions of Czechoslovak territory in November, taking advantage of the country's dismemberment following Munich.
  • President Roosevelt recalled the American ambassador from Berlin in November following Kristallnacht, signaling deteriorating relations with Nazi Germany.
  • Japan declared a New Order in East Asia in November, proclaiming its intention to establish a political and economic bloc dominated by Japan.
  • The Evian Conference was held in July to address the Jewish refugee crisis, but most participating nations refused to increase immigration quotas.
  • Mexico nationalized its oil industry on March 18 under President Lazaro Cardenas, expropriating the assets of foreign oil companies.
  • Saudi Arabia granted an oil concession to Standard Oil of California, expanding American petroleum interests in the Persian Gulf region.

Conflict & Security

  • Kristallnacht occurred on November 9 and 10, when Nazi mobs attacked Jewish businesses, synagogues, and homes across Germany and Austria, killing dozens and arresting tens of thousands.
  • The Battle of the Ebro, the longest and largest battle of the Spanish Civil War, raged from July to November and ended in a decisive Nationalist victory.
  • Japanese forces captured Canton and Wuhan in October, taking two of China's most important cities and extending Japanese control over much of eastern China.
  • The Battle of Wuhan from June to October was the largest engagement of the Sino-Japanese War, involving over a million Chinese troops before the city fell to Japan.
  • The Battle of Changkufeng in July and August saw Soviet and Japanese forces clash along the Manchukuo-Korea border, resulting in a Soviet victory.
  • Franco's Nationalist forces split Republican-held territory in Spain by reaching the Mediterranean coast in April, dividing the Republic in two.
  • Stalin's Great Purge continued, with the third Moscow show trial in March resulting in the conviction and execution of Nikolai Bukharin and other former Bolshevik leaders.
  • German Jews faced escalating persecution, with new regulations barring them from professions, confiscating their property, and forcing them to carry special identification.
  • The Arab revolt in Palestine continued, with British forces deploying tens of thousands of troops to suppress the uprising.
  • China's united resistance against Japan continued despite the fall of major cities, with guerrilla warfare expanding behind Japanese lines.

Economy & Finance

  • The Fair Labor Standards Act was signed by President Roosevelt in June, establishing a federal minimum wage of twenty-five cents per hour and a maximum work week of forty-four hours.
  • The United States economy began recovering from the sharp recession of 1937, with increased government spending helping to stimulate growth.
  • Germany's annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland added significant industrial capacity and economic resources to the Reich.
  • Mexico's nationalization of its oil industry led to an international boycott by major oil companies, forcing Mexico to find new markets.
  • Britain accelerated its rearmament program, with military spending increasing substantially as war with Germany appeared increasingly likely.
  • Japan imposed wartime economic controls, directing industrial production toward military needs as the war in China consumed growing resources.
  • The Civil Aeronautics Act established the Civil Aeronautics Authority to regulate the American airline industry.
  • Germany's economic position was strained by massive military spending, with the regime relying on deficit financing and exploitation of annexed territories.
  • The Soviet Union continued its third Five-Year Plan, with industrial production focused on heavy industry and military equipment.
  • Agricultural conditions improved in parts of the American Great Plains as drought eased and soil conservation measures took effect.

Technology & Infrastructure

  • The ballpoint pen was patented by Hungarian journalist Laszlo Biro in June, offering a practical alternative to fountain pens.
  • The Volkswagen Beetle design was finalized, and Hitler laid the cornerstone for the Volkswagen factory at Wolfsburg in May.
  • Howard Hughes set a record by flying around the world in three days, nineteen hours, and seventeen minutes, completing the journey in July.
  • Teflon was accidentally discovered by Roy Plunkett at DuPont when he found that tetrafluoroethylene gas had polymerized into a waxy white substance.
  • The pressurized aircraft cabin was introduced on the Boeing 307 Stratoliner, allowing commercial aircraft to fly above weather at higher altitudes.
  • Instant coffee was developed in a commercially viable form by Nestle, marketed as Nescafe beginning in April.
  • The Mallard steam locomotive set a world speed record for steam traction at 126 miles per hour on July 3 in England.
  • Construction of naval vessels accelerated in Britain, Germany, Japan, and the United States as nations prepared for potential conflict.
  • The xerographic copying process was demonstrated by Chester Carlson on October 22, producing the first dry photocopy in his laboratory in Astoria, Queens.
  • Radio broadcasting remained the dominant mass medium, with networks reaching tens of millions of listeners in the United States and Europe.

Science & Discovery

  • Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann achieved nuclear fission in December, splitting uranium atoms in their Berlin laboratory, a discovery with profound implications.
  • Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch provided the theoretical explanation for Hahn and Strassmann's fission experiments, correctly interpreting the results as nuclear splitting.
  • Enrico Fermi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on induced radioactivity and his discovery of new radioactive elements produced by neutron bombardment.
  • Pearl Buck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for her novels depicting life in China, becoming the first American woman to receive the prize.
  • The coelacanth, a fish believed to have been extinct for millions of years, was discovered alive off the coast of South Africa in December.
  • Research on nuclear physics intensified at laboratories across Europe and the United States, with scientists exploring the implications of uranium fission.
  • The first practical fiberglass material was developed by Owens Corning, finding applications in insulation and later in structural composites.
  • Isidor Isaac Rabi developed nuclear magnetic resonance methods for observing the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei.
  • Research on radar continued in Britain, the United States, and Germany, with each nation developing increasingly sophisticated detection systems.
  • The first commercial fluorescent lighting was introduced by General Electric, offering more efficient illumination than incandescent bulbs.

Health & Medicine

  • The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act was signed into law in June, establishing new safety requirements for drugs and cosmetics following the Elixir Sulfanilamide disaster.
  • Electroconvulsive therapy was first administered to a human patient by Italian physicians Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini in April, introducing a new psychiatric treatment.
  • Sulfapyridine was introduced as a treatment for pneumonia, significantly reducing mortality from the disease.
  • The March of Dimes was founded by President Roosevelt in January as the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, raising funds for polio research and treatment.
  • Research on blood plasma for transfusion advanced, with scientists developing methods to separate and store plasma for later use.
  • Dilantin was introduced as an effective treatment for epileptic seizures, improving the lives of patients with the condition.
  • Tuberculosis continued to be treated primarily in sanatoriums, with streptomycin and other effective antibiotics still years away.
  • Public health campaigns promoted vaccination, sanitation, and nutrition education in industrialized nations.
  • The health effects of industrial pollution received growing attention, though regulation remained limited.
  • Malaria research continued, with scientists searching for more effective treatments and prevention methods beyond quinine.

Climate & Environment

  • Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels stood at approximately 309 parts per million.
  • A devastating hurricane struck New England on September 21, killing over six hundred people and causing massive destruction across Long Island and the northeastern states.
  • Dust Bowl conditions eased in parts of the Great Plains as rainfall returned and soil conservation techniques gained wider adoption.
  • The Olympic National Park was established in Washington State in June, protecting old-growth temperate rain forests and alpine wilderness.
  • Flooding affected parts of southern California in March, with heavy rains causing mudslides and property damage in the Los Angeles area.
  • The Civilian Conservation Corps continued its work across the United States, employing young men in reforestation, erosion control, and park development.
  • Nuclear fission's discovery raised no immediate environmental concerns, though it would eventually transform the relationship between energy and the environment.
  • Air pollution from industrial sources and coal combustion remained a persistent problem in major cities worldwide.
  • Severe weather events including tornadoes struck the American Midwest and South during the spring storm season.
  • Conservation advocates pushed for expanded protection of wilderness areas and wildlife habitats in the United States.

Culture & Society

  • The global population was approximately 2.27 billion, with growth continuing despite political upheaval and military conflict across multiple continents.
  • The Life of Emile Zola won the Academy Award for Best Picture at the ceremony held in March.
  • Orson Welles's radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds on October 30 caused widespread panic among listeners who believed a Martian invasion was underway.
  • Superman made his debut in Action Comics No. 1, published in June, creating the modern superhero genre.
  • The Fair Labor Standards Act prohibited child labor in the United States and established the first federal minimum wage.
  • Thornton Wilder's play Our Town premiered on Broadway in February, offering a meditation on life and death in small-town America.
  • Seabiscuit defeated War Admiral in a famous match race at Pimlico on November 1, captivating the American public during difficult economic times.
  • Benny Goodman's Carnegie Hall concert on January 16 was a landmark event for jazz music, bringing swing to one of America's most prestigious venues.
  • The first issue of Action Comics, featuring Superman, sold for ten cents and would become one of the most valuable comic books in history.
  • Kate Smith's rendition of Irving Berlin's God Bless America, first performed on Armistice Day, became an unofficial national anthem.