Directory

1533 CE

A year defined by the execution of the Inca emperor Atahualpa, Henry VIII's secret marriage to Anne Boleyn, and the continuing transformation of European religion and politics.

Geopolitics & Diplomacy

  • Henry VIII of England secretly married Anne Boleyn in January, precipitating the final break with Rome over the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
  • Thomas Cranmer was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in March and promptly declared Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon null and void.
  • The Spanish held the Inca emperor Atahualpa captive at Cajamarca while extracting an enormous ransom of gold and silver, with treasure arriving from across the Inca Empire throughout the first half of the year.
  • Atahualpa was executed by the Spanish in July at Cajamarca despite having paid a vast ransom, effectively decapitating the Inca state and accelerating the Spanish conquest.
  • Ivan IV became Grand Prince of Moscow at the age of three following the death of his father Vasily III, with a regency council governing on his behalf.
  • Christian III became king of Denmark following a succession dispute, setting the stage for the Danish Reformation and civil war.

Conflict & Security

  • The Spanish conquest of Peru advanced rapidly following the capture and execution of Atahualpa, with Pizarro's forces seizing Inca cities and treasure stores.
  • The Count's War erupted in Denmark, a civil war between supporters of the deposed Christian II and the newly proclaimed Christian III that would engulf Scandinavia.
  • Ottoman naval forces under Hayreddin Barbarossa continued to dominate the central and western Mediterranean, raiding Christian coastlines and challenging Habsburg naval power.
  • The Inca resistance continued in Peru as remnants of the imperial army attempted to oppose Spanish forces despite the loss of their emperor.

Economy & Finance

  • The ransom of Atahualpa brought an unprecedented influx of gold and silver into Spanish hands, with the treasure eventually reaching Europe and contributing to price inflation.

Science & Discovery

  • The Spanish conquest of Peru exposed Europeans to the sophisticated Inca civilization, including its road system, architecture, and administrative organization.
  • Pedro de Heredia founded the city of Cartagena de Indias on the Caribbean coast of present-day Colombia, establishing a major Spanish colonial port.

Health & Medicine

  • European diseases including smallpox began devastating indigenous populations in Peru following contact with Pizarro's expedition, contributing to the collapse of Inca resistance.
  • Andreas Vesalius began his medical studies at the University of Louvain, embarking on a career that would revolutionize the understanding of human anatomy.

Climate & Environment

  • Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration was approximately 274 parts per million, as later confirmed by ice core analysis.

Culture & Society

  • Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn transformed English religious and political life, setting the stage for the complete break with papal authority.
  • Lucas Cranach the Elder continued to produce influential paintings and prints in Wittenberg, serving as the principal visual artist of the Lutheran Reformation.
  • Ariosto's Orlando Furioso appeared in a revised and expanded edition, cementing its status as one of the great epic poems of the Italian Renaissance.
  • The destruction of Inca cultural artifacts by Spanish conquistadors began, as gold and silver objects were melted down for their metal value.
  • The estimated world population was approximately 492 million, with major population centers in China, India, and Europe, and declining populations in the Americas due to epidemic disease.