Directory

1460 CE

A year defined by the intensification of the Wars of the Roses in England, the fall of key strongholds, and shifting power across medieval Europe and beyond.

Geopolitics & Diplomacy

  • Richard of York returned from Ireland and challenged the authority of the Lancastrian government, pressing his claim to the English throne before Parliament in October.
  • The Act of Accord was passed by the English Parliament in October, recognizing Richard of York as heir to the throne and disinheriting Henry VI's son Prince Edward.
  • The Kingdom of Castile experienced internal tensions as King Henry IV faced growing opposition from noble factions dissatisfied with his rule.
  • The Despotate of the Morea faced increasing Ottoman pressure in the Peloponnese.
  • Scandinavian politics remained unstable as King Christian I of Denmark struggled to maintain control over Sweden and Norway under the Kalmar Union.

Conflict & Security

  • The Battle of Northampton was fought on July 10, resulting in a decisive Yorkist victory that led to the capture of King Henry VI.
  • The Battle of Wakefield was fought on December 30, resulting in the death of Richard of York and a major Lancastrian victory.
  • Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, emerged as the most powerful military figure on the Yorkist side, coordinating forces across England.
  • The Earl of Salisbury, Richard Neville's father, was captured after the Battle of Wakefield and executed by Lancastrian forces.
  • Queen Margaret of Anjou rallied Lancastrian forces in northern England and Scotland, refusing to accept the Act of Accord.
  • Ottoman forces under Sultan Mehmed II continued campaigns in the Balkans, consolidating control over Serbia and expanding into Bosnia.
  • Vlad III of Wallachia, known as Vlad the Impaler, clashed with Ottoman forces and used brutal tactics to resist Turkish expansion into his territory.
  • The Thirteen Years' War between the Teutonic Order and Poland-Lithuania continued, draining both sides of resources and manpower.

Economy & Finance

  • English trade suffered disruption as the Wars of the Roses interrupted commerce, particularly the lucrative wool trade with Flanders.
  • Portuguese traders expanded their commercial presence along the West African coast, trading gold, ivory, and enslaved people.
  • The English wool staple at Calais continued to function as a critical hub for the export of raw wool to continental weavers.

Technology & Infrastructure

  • Gutenberg's printing press, established in Mainz in the previous decade, continued to spread, with new print shops appearing in German cities.
  • The Ottoman Empire invested in advanced siege artillery, building upon the massive cannons used in the conquest of Constantinople in 1453.
  • Shipbuilding in Portugal advanced with improvements to the caravel design, enabling longer oceanic voyages along the African coast.

Science & Discovery

  • Georg von Peuerbach, the Austrian astronomer, worked on his influential treatise on planetary theory at the University of Vienna.
  • Peuerbach began compiling eclipse tables that would later be completed by his student Regiomontanus, advancing computational astronomy.

Climate & Environment

  • Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration was approximately 273 parts per million, as later confirmed by ice core analysis.
  • Harsh winter conditions across northern Europe contributed to difficult harvests and food shortages, compounding the disruptions caused by ongoing warfare in England and the Balkans.

Culture & Society

  • Cosimo de' Medici remained the dominant patron of arts and learning in Florence, supporting artists, architects, and classical scholars.
  • Leon Battista Alberti continued his influential work on architecture and art theory, promoting classical principles of design and proportion.
  • The University of Basel was founded in 1460, becoming a significant center of learning in the Upper Rhine region.
  • The estimated global population was approximately 427 million people.